The present invention relates to a miniaturized, low power, programmable x-ray source for use in delivering low-levels of substantially constant or intermittent x-rays to a specified region.
Conventional medical x-ray sources are large, fixed position machines. Generally, the head of the x-ray tube is placed in one room and the control console in an adjoining area, with a protective wall, equipped with a viewing window, separating the two. The x-ray tube typically is approximately 20 to 35 centimeters (cm) long, and approximately 15 cm in diameter. A high voltage power supply is housed within a container located in a corner of the room containing the x-ray tube. Patients are brought to the machine for diagnostic, therapeutic, or palliative treatment.
Diagnostic x-ray machines are typically operated at voltages below 150 kilovolts (kV), and at currents from approximately 25 to 1200 milliamps (mA). By contrast, the currents in therapeutic units typically do not exceed 20 mA at voltages which may range above 150 kV. When an x-ray machine is operated at nominal voltages of 10 to 140 kV, the emitted x-rays provide limited penetration of tissue, and are thus useful in treating skin lesions. At higher voltages (approximately 250 kV), deep x-ray penetration is achieved, which is useful in the treatment of major body tumors. Supervoltage machines, operable in the 4 to 8 megavolt (MV) region, are used to ablate or destroy all types of tumors, except superficial skin lesions.
A conventional x-ray tube includes an anode, grid, and cathode assembly. The cathode assembly generates an electron beam which is directed to a target, by an electric field established by the anode and grid. The target in turn emits x-ray radiation in response to the incident electron beam. The radiation absorbed by a patient generally is that which is transmitted from the target in the x-ray tube through a window in the tube, taking into account transmission losses. This window typically is a thin section of beryllium, or other suitable material. In a typical x-ray machine, the cathode assembly consists of a thoriated tungsten coil approximately 2 mm in diameter and 1 to 2 cm in length which, when resistively heated with a current of 4 amps (A) or higher, thermionically emits electrons. This coil is surrounded by a metal focussing cup which concentrates the beam of electrons to a small spot on an opposing anode which also functions as the target. In models having a grid, it is the grid which both controls the path of the electron beam and focuses the beam.
The transmission of an electron beam from cathode to anode is influenced by electron space charge forces which tend to become significant in conventional x-ray machines at currents exceeding 1 A. In such conventional machines, the beam is focussed on the anode to a spot diameter ranging anywhere from 0.3 to 2.5 millimeters (mm). In many applications, most of the energy from the electron beam is converted into heat at the anode. To accommodate such heating, high power medical x-ray sources often utilize liquid cooling and a rapidly rotating anode, thereby establishing an increased effective target area, permitting a small focal spot while minimizing the effects of localized heating. To achieve good thermal conductivity and effective heat dissipation, the anode typically is fabricated from copper. In addition, the area of the anode onto which an electron beam is incident requires a material of high atomic number for efficient x-ray generation. To meet the requirements of thermal conductivity, effective heat dissipation, and efficient x-ray generation, a tungsten alloy typically is embedded in the copper.
In use, the total exposure from an x-ray source is directly proportional to the time integral of the electron beam. During relatively long exposures (e.g. lasting 1 to 3 seconds), the anode temperature may rise sufficiently to cause it to glow brightly, accompanied by localized surface melting and pitting which degrades the radiation output. However, thermal vaporization of the tube's coiled cathode filament is most frequently responsible for conventional tube failure.
While the efficiency of x-ray generation is independent of the electron beam current, it is highly dependent on the acceleration voltage. Below 60 kV, only a few tenths of one percent of the kinetic energy from an electron is converted to x-rays, whereas at 20 MV that conversion factor rises to 70 percent. An emitted x-ray spectrum is composed in part of discrete energies characteristic of transitions between bound electron energy levels of the target element. The spectrum also includes an x-ray energy continuum, known as bremsstrahlung, which is caused by acceleration of the beam electrons as they pass near target nuclei. The maximum energy of an x-ray cannot exceed the peak energy of an electron in the beam. Further, the peak of the bremsstrahlung emission curve occurs at approximately one-third the electron energy.
Increasing the electron current results in a directly proportional increase in x-ray emission at all energies. However, a change in beam voltage results in a total x-ray output variation approximately equal to the square of the voltage, with a corresponding shift in peak x-ray photon energy. The efficiency of bremsstrahlung radiation production increases with the atomic number of the target element. The peak output in the bremsstrahlung curve and the characteristic spectral lines shift to higher energies as the atomic number of the target increases. Although tungsten (Z=74) is the most common target material used in modern tubes, gold (Z=79) and molybdenum (Z=42) are used in some specialty tubes.
X-rays interact in several ways with matter. For biological samples, the following two types of interactions are most important: Compton scattering of moderate-energy x-rays with outer shell electrons; and, photoionizing interactions of inner shell electrons. In these processes, the probability of atom ionization decreases with increasing photon energy in both soft tissue and bone. For the photoelectric effect, this relationship follows an inverse third-power law.
One disadvantage of present x-ray devices used for therapy is the high voltage required when directed to soft tissue within or beneath bone. One example is in directing x-rays to areas of the human brain, which is surrounded by bone. High energy x-rays are required to penetrate the bone, but often damage the skin and brain tissue. Another example in radiation therapy is in directing the x-rays to soft tissue located within the body cavity, couched among other soft tissue, or within an internal calciferous structure. Present high-voltage machines are limited in their ability to selectively provide desired x-ray radiation to such areas.
Another disadvantage of the high voltage output of present x-ray sources is the damage caused to skin external to the affected organ or tissue. Therefore, high voltage devices of present systems often cause significant damage not only to the target region or tissue, but also to all surrounding tissue and surface skin, particularly when used for human tumor therapy. However, since present devices apply x-ray radiation to target regions internal to a patient from a source external to the target region, such incidental tissue damage is practically unavoidable.
Specifically as to brain tissue, which lacks any substantial regenerative ability, the treatment of brain tumors requires precise techniques to bring about specific tissue destruction. The use of conventional x-ray devices in brain tumor therapy often lacks the precision needed in volumetric irradiation, resulting in the damage of non-cancerous tissue of the brain and associated glandular structures.
An alternative form of tumor therapy, called brachytherapy, involves implanting encapsulated radioisotopes in or near the tumor to be treated. While such use of radioisotopes may be effective in treating certain types of tumors, introduction of the isotopes requires invasive procedures which have potential side-effects, such as the possibility of infection. Moreover, brain swelling may occur in some applications because the emission from the isotope cannot be controlled. Further, there is no ability to provide selective control of time dosage or radiation intensity. Handling and disposal of such radioisotopes involves hazards to both the individual handler and the environment.
Invasive techniques of the brain require precise control of irradiation through the choice and concentration of isotopes used. Intracranial penetration poses a significant risk as is well known in the art.
In view of the above requirements and limitations to the use of x-rays from present machines in therapeutic, diagnostic, palliative, or evaluative environments, there remains a need for a relatively small, easily manipulated, low-energy, x-ray device. Such a device operating at low energy and power will be suitable for many of the applications described herein.
Thus, it is an object of the present invention to provide an easily manipulated, low-power x-ray device.
It is another object of the invention to provide a relatively small, low-power x-ray device having a controllable, or programmable, power supply.
It is another object of the invention to provide a relatively small, low-power x-ray device which is implantable into a patient for directly irradiating a desired region of tissue with x-rays.
It is yet another object of the invention to provide a relatively small, surface-mountable, low-power x-ray device for affecting a desired surface region with x-rays.
It is yet another object of the invention to provide a relatively small, low-power x-ray device which is partially implantable into a patient for directly irradiating a specified region with x-rays.
It is yet another object of the invention to provide a small, low-power x-ray device and reference frame assembly for controllably positioning an x-ray source within a patient's skull in order to irradiate and therefore treat a brain tumor.